Kotahitanga

Trauma and Toxic Stress

“Children’s sense of safety is built on positive
experiences, and the anticipation of pleasure
and protection in the future.”

(Annan, 2022, p. 50)

Research indicates that experiences of trauma and toxic stress during childhood, and particularly early childhood, have a detrimental impact on children’s brain development and their outcomes both during childhood and later in life.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are traumatic experiences or events that occur during childhood and may happen directly to the child, such as physical or emotional abuse or neglect, or within the child’s environment, such as domestic violence, or parental mental illness or addiction.

Experiences of trauma and stress affect children’s sense of safety and consequently significantly impact the brain’s ability to carry out its three functions of survival, protection, and executive thinking. (Annan, 2022, p.40). Children are less able to make decisions and problem-solve consciously and purposefully, engage effectively in learning, and their ability to establish and maintain healthy relationships with peers and adults is diminished.

A brain that has experienced trauma is wired to perceive danger and therefore more likely to operate in survival or “fight-flightfreeze” mode, where conscious thinking is limited by the brain’s protective responses. Children in this state are more likely to act impulsively, demonstrating defensive or offensive behaviours, to flee or avoid situations or to shut down and disengage. (Annan, 2022, p.41). Children may find it difficult to learn and socialise within the classroom environment, resulting in poor educational achievement and difficulty making friends (Martin & Berger, 2022).

As well as the impact on educational engagement, ACEs have also been linked to increased risk of poor health outcomes later in life, with the likelihood of poor outcomes compounding with each ACE. (Brainwave, 2022)

Increased awareness of, and education about, the impact of early trauma and toxic stress on childhood development has led to an increase in trauma-informed practices being implemented in a range of settings that children engage in, such as education, health and social work settings. While much of the focus has been on early childhood, there is a variety of resources (such as those listed below) available to practitioners working with children in the five to 12-years stage.

A trauma-informed approach ought to highlight the continued importance of safe and nurturing environments for children’s brain development throughout all of childhood, while also recognising that while a child may have experienced prior trauma, the brain’s neuroplasticity offers opportunity for healing and the development of new, positive neural pathways that will serve them into adulthood.

Read more about trauma by clicking the links below:

• Trauma & tamariki: what do we know and how can we help them? – Brainwave Trust, 2021
• Kaupapa Māori approaches to Trauma Informed Care, Kathleen Nelson, AUT, 2021
• Making SPACE for Learning: Trauma Informed Practice in Schools, Australian Childhood Foundation, 2010
• Trauma-Informed Care for the Children’s Workforce – Course from the Goodfellow Unit, 2018 (you will need to register to undertake the course).
• Promoting Resilience – a trauma informed practice approach – Oranga Tamariki, 2018

Mental Wellbeing

Most children in Aotearoa experience good mental wellbeing, as evidenced by findings of the Growing Up in New Zealand study and the Ministry of Health.

Ministry of Health data indicates that the prevalence of diagnosed depression among children aged 2-14 years was 0.3% equivalent to 3,000 children – in the year 2021/22. This figure
indicates a decrease from 0.8% of children diagnosed in the year 2019/20. For the 2021/22 period, the prevalence of diagnosed anxiety among children aged 2-14 years was 4.1%, or around 35,000 children (Ministry of Health, 2023).

Growing Up in New Zealand’s Now We Are Twelve research also reported most children at age 12 reporting good mental health. The study found that:

• Approximately 5% of young people at age 12 had been diagnosed with depression or anxiety.
• However, over half of children in the study had an increase in depressive symptoms, and a third in anxiety symptoms, between ages 8 and 12.
• Around 8% of children had engaged with a mental health service over the previous year.
• The largest increase in symptoms between ages 8-12 and the highest levels of depression and anxiety symptoms were among transgender or non-binary children.
• Depressive symptoms were higher among Māori compared to European children.
• Children who had strong relationships with their parents and peers experienced less symptoms of depression or anxiety.
• Being bullied frequently was associated with higher rates of depression and anxiety (Fletcher et al., 2023). See more about bullying on page 86.

Among those with poor mental health, there has been a rise in the severity of cases indicated by increased rates of hospitalisation for mental illness:

• In 2021 the rate of hospitalisation for intentional self-harm among 10-14 year olds was almost 4.5 times that of 2011, with girls more affected than boys
• Between 2009 and 2021 rates of hospitalisation for mental and behavioural disorders among 10-14 year olds doubled (CureKids, 2023).

Findings of the CureKids (2003) State of Child Health report suggest that unlike many other childhood illnesses, rates of hospitalisation for mental health disorders have not been found to vary greatly across socioeconomic groups. However, Growing Up in New Zealand findings identified that individuals experiencing the highest area-level deprivation had higher depression symptoms at age 12. Similarly, results from the Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire, a behavioural screening tool used with this age group, indicated that children from high deprivation areas were three times more likely to have concerning results than those from low-deprivation areas. (Ministry of Health, 2018).

Of great concern is the state of the children’s mental healthcare system which has seen significant increases in demand coupled with “alarming rates” of vacancies (Spence, 2022). This has resulted in high wait times for services across both the public and private sectors, and the filling of specialist mental health roles with professionals who may have little experience working with children. The Growing Up in New Zealand findings noted above suggest that a much greater number of children experience anxiety and depressive symptoms than are represented in diagnosis rates. This could be because the severity of their symptoms does not warrant a diagnosis or because our overwhelmed health system makes such a diagnosis inaccessible for some children.

Growing Up in New Zealand findings indicate that almost 40% of children who had contact with a mental health service did not receive all the support they needed, noting that barriers included children not being eligible for a service, or the service or appointment not being accessible (Fletcher et. al, 2003).

There is an absence of training specific to middle childhood for those working with children in Aotearoa New Zealand (see 93 for more). Where training occurs, it tends to rely on older, westernised models and theories, including at degree level. The intentional development of a well-skilled and knowledgeable workforce who have a deep, current, and evidence-based understanding of middle childhood is crucial.

— Click here to read about Mental Wellbeing in the Cure Kids State of Child Health 2022 Report
— Click here to read about Mental Wellbeing in Growing Up In New Zealand research

Suicide

Data from Te Whatu Ora (2023) indicates that over the period 2009-2021 there were no confirmed or suspected suicide deaths among children aged 9 and under.

Over this same period there were 113 suspected suicide deaths among the 10-14 year old age group, of which 70 have been confirmed. A key action of Aotearoa’s Suicide Prevention Strategy: Every Life Matters – He Tapu te Oranga o ia tangata is to increase wellbeing support for children and young people in places of learning.

-Find out more about suicide prevention in Aotearoa

Initiatives to support children’s mental wellbeing

Below are a range of different initiatives available across Aotearoa to support children’s mental wellbeing.

Mental Health Education: A guide for teachers, leaders and school boards

A guide for school leadership and teaching staff on how to incorporate mental health education within the New Zealand curriculum

Mana Ake – Stronger for Tomorrow

Mana Ake is primarily a cognitive behaviour therapy based early intervention mental health and wellbeing programme delivered for students in Years 1-8 in schools in several regions throughout New Zealand (Christchurch, Kaikōura, Bay of Plenty, West Coast, Rotorua, Taupō, South Auckland and Northland). It aims to address mild to moderate mental health challenges, and issues impacting on children’s wellbeing (such as grief, loss, bullying, parental separation) by providing direct support to children and equipping families and teachers to support tamariki wellbeing.

Originally established to address increased levels of anxiety among children after the Christchurch earthquakes, the programme has since been extended to other regions and is estimated to benefit 195,000 children. This figure will increase with the programme being extended in 2023 to support children in Tairāwhiti and the Hawkes Bay following the cyclone events of 2023 (New Zealand Government, 2022) (Malatest International, 2021).

Seasons for Growth

Seasons for Growth is a peer support programme designed to support children experiencing grief, change or loss. Regularly evaluated, the programme is delivered in schools by trained
facilitators over eight sessions. Children may be facing grief or loss due to a range of causes such as the death or illness of a whanau member, parental separation or imprisonment, relocation, or placement in foster care.

Sparklers

Sparklers is a resource hub designed to support resilience building for children. Sparklers is guided by the Te Whare Tapa Wha framework and offers resources for within the home.

Other programmes

Programmes designed to support children’s resilience and wellbeing include those listed below.

Many of these programmes are based on cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), which is focused on helping children understand how their thoughts and feelings can affect how they act. There is a need for programmes to also be developed that offer other approaches, to ensure all children’s needs are being met.

Click on the names of the programmes to find out more.

Little People, Big Feelings

A programme delivered in schools by the I Am Hope Foundation

Kids Feeling Safe Programme

Delivered by Iosis in Tāmaki Makaurau, Kids Feeling Safe is a child-focused programme, working with families who have experienced family violence. It helps them understand and develop new skills for healthy relationships.

Travellers Programme

This programme is targeted at children experiencing transitions such as moving to a new city or starting a new school. It aims to build resilience and life skills.

Facing Your Fears

A CBT based programme focused on managing anxiety.

Mitey

A CBT based programme provided by the Sir John Kirwan Foundation that supports schools to deliver an evidence-based approach to mental health education for children in Years 1-8.

Weaving Wellbeing

This programme delivered by Hato Hone – St John’s aims to help Year 7 and 8 students to understand their strengths, build positive relationships and develop resilience and confidence to navigate their world.

The Resilience Project’s School Wellbeing Programme

An Australian initiative that supports mental health through presentations, student curriculum, teacher resources and digital content.

Kia Kaha

A programme delivered by the New Zealand Police focused on developing strategies for respectful relationships where bullying behaviours are not tolerated.

Jade Speaks Up

CBT based programmes that equip teachers to help students recognise and manage situations that stem from anxiety, stress and family violence.

Rock and Water programme

A social skills programme that develops whakamana/ empowerment by developing children’s
ability to respond, rather than react, and make conscious controllable decisions in situations they may encounter.

Sparx

CBT based e-therapy delivered through gameplay to enable children to process emotions.

ACES

This programme supports children facing parental separation.

Wise-Up

This CBT based programme supports children with low-mid level anxiety to manage difficult emotions.

Yellow Brick Road

These Children’s Programmes are designed to help children to understand the mental illness of a family member.

Pause Breathe Smile

A CBT based mind health programme designed to equip children aged five to 12 with tools to manage the ups and downs of life and set them up for a healthy future.

ASB St John in Schools

These programmes teach children how to be lifesavers in an emergency, how to avoid injury and about becoming guardians of wellbeing in their community.

Mana Tangata | Contribution

When thinking about Mana Tangata | the contribution children make to our society today, it is useful to consider our theoretical whakapapa – the various academic perspectives that have shaped our understanding of human development. But more importantly, what we now know and understand – and where the gaps that we need to fill are.

Traditional Theories of Development

Much of our current understanding of middle childhood originates from classical Western theories of human development, such as those of Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner. These theories are briefly outlined below.

While not necessarily wrong, these theories were developed early last century on the other side of the globe. The society in which they emerged saw children in a fundamentally different way to our present. And while these are some of the theoretical giants whose shoulders we stand on – their relevance to now is limited. We believe there is a need to research, develop and teach Aotearoa appropriate theories and knowledge of child development.

Child Development Approaches within Education

The New Zealand Curriculum

According to the Ministry of Education, the development of the NZ Curriculum “considers a number of different theories and frameworks. As such, it is very difficult to pinpoint particular theories or frameworks that focus on child development.” (Ministry of Education, 2022, received under the Official Information Act).

It is generally understood that our approach to teaching in Aotearoa is shaped by sociocultural theories. The current approach is ‘social constructivism’ which has a focus on students as active participants in their learning. Social constructivism suggests that knowledge is constructed by students through exploration and interactions with others (Johnston & Martin, 2023).

Currently the Curriculum is focused on the following key competencies which are considered “the capabilities people have and need to develop to live and learn today and in the future”
(Ministry of Education, 2020):

• Thinking
• Relating to others
• Using language, symbols, and texts
• Managing self
• Participating and contributing.

Social and emotional learning is expected to occur across the curriculum relating to the key competencies of relating to others, participating and contributing, managing self and thinking
(Ministry of Education, n.d.). The New Zealand Curriculum is halfway through a six-year curriculum refresh, and this approach may shift. Consultation on the refresh includes that available on Education Conversation | Kōrero Mātauranga. With coming changes, there is an opportunity to make this more obvious and to consider more contemporary, and Aotearoa-informed research.

The Government’s One Hour A Day policy was introduced in Term 1 2024 and requires that students in Years 0-8 be taught one hour each of reading, writing and mathematics per day. A Ministerial Advisory Group is currently reviewing parts of the curriculum related to English and maths across these year levels.

Te Marautanga o Aotearoa (the curriculum for kura and Māori medium schools)

In relation to the complete redesign of Te Marautanga o Aotearoa which is currently taking place, the Ministry of Education states that:

In relation to the complete redesign of Te Marautanga o Aotearoa which is currently taking place, the Ministry of Education states that:

“Research has begun into theories and theorists regarding learning and developmental stages that may be compatible with pedagogical approaches that support Māori-medium education, such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Skinner, Steiner, and Montessori. This work is ongoing.

The Ministry’s practice framework in the learning support field, He Pikorua, has shifted away from traditional developmental theories that tend to be linear and universal in their approach, suggesting a common journey for all children. However, the sociocultural perspective suggests that a child’s development is deeply influenced by their social interactions, cultural norms, and relationships.

Within mātauranga Māori and te ao Māori, development is viewed through an even broader lens. In the Māori worldview, the child doesn’t stand alone but is seen as part of an intricate web of relationships with their whānau, hapū, and iwi. Development is not just about individual growth but about how the child fits into and contributes to these wider networks.

While milestones and stages offer one framework, understanding the child’s development also means appreciating their unique place in the whānau, their connection to their tīpuna, and their ongoing journey in understanding and living within te ao Māori. Embracing this holistic view can guide more culturally rich and individually tailored approaches to support growth.”

(Provided by the Ministry of Education (2023) via request under the Official Information Act)

As mentioned previously, the theorists referred to here are western thinkers from the middle of last century. This we believe highlights a challenge faced across middle childhood – the evidence base has not been kept current and is not specific to our context. We hope that asking these questions and producing this guide helps to identify areas of growth and opportunity.

Brain development is influenced by the experiences children have during early and middle childhood. Children are shaped by learning opportunities, relationships that nurture them, friendships they form, interactions with peers, the extent to which they feel safe, the social and cultural context they exist within and the way in which they establish meaning from their experiences.

General Child Development Education for Children

The New Zealand Health & Physical Education Curriculum

Children are taught information about their own development in primary and intermediate schools through a focus on the following four strands of the curriculum

• “Personal health and physical development, in which students develop the knowledge, understandings, skills, and attitudes that they need in order to maintain and enhance their personal well-being and physical development
• Movement concepts and motor skills, in which students develop motor skills, knowledge and understandings about movement, and positive attitudes towards physical activity
• Relationships with other people, in which students develop understandings, skills, and attitudes that enhance their interactions and relationships with others
• Healthy communities and environments, in which students contribute to healthy communities and environments by taking responsible and critical action.” (Ministry of Education, 2017)

There are seven key areas of learning for students which include:

• mental health,
• sexuality education,
• food and nutrition,
• body care and physical safety,
• physical activity,
• sports studies and
• outdoor education.

— Click HERE to learn more about the Health & Education Curriculum

Mana Aotūroa | Exploration

“Maybe we tend to neglect middle childhood because people think it is freer of major hazards than are very early childhood or adolescence. To the extent that this view is accurate, middle childhood should be valued as a window of opportunity…a good time to maximise the potential for positive growth and introduce supports and opportunities that help children along successful pathways to adulthood.”

(Huston et al., 2006)

Mana Aotūroa | Exploration supports children’s development by valuing their experiences and providing environments to think and reason. This allows them to make sense of their world and their place within it.

Supporting holistic development requires us to understand what life is like for today’s children and how they can be best supported to thrive. Research and development of current models of
children’s development makes it possible to begin to support the needs of middle childhood.

Positive experiences in middle childhood builds strong foundations for adolescence and adulthood. There is a need for investment into this life stage to see this opportunity maximised.

Emerging Theories

Te Pā Harakeke

Te Pā Harakeke is a child-centred model of whānau wellbeing. It is a metaphor for family based on the harakeke (flax) plant where the flax blades represent the multigenerational support and protection that exists around a child. “At its very core is the wellbeing, nurturing, care and protection of tamariki” (Pihama & Lee-Morgan, 2022, p. 6).

The central flax blade or shoot, the ‘rito’, represents the child. The central shoot is vital for the health of the plant and symbolises the importance of the child at the heart of the family unit.

Surrounding the rito/child are the flax blades on either side which represent the ‘awhi rito’ or mātua – parents and aunts/uncles – who provide sustenance and protection to the rito.

The outer flax blades represent the ‘tīpuna’, grandparents and ancestors who provide shelter and care to the whānau. This includes “spiritual sustenance, guidance and protection to all generations” (Pihama & Lee-Morgan, 2022, p. 9).

The concept of Te Pā Harakeke incorporates multiple whānau and represents the
concept of the village’s role and responsibility in raising children (Pihama & Lee-Morgan, 2022).

Source: Te Ahukaramū Charles Royal

Oranga Mokopuna Framework

This is a Kaupapa Māori health and wellbeing rights framework developed by King, Cormack and Kōpua (2018). Again, framed around the harakeke plant, Oranga Mokopuna expands on the metaphor.

It starts with children as the rito (the shoot) at the heart of the harakeke plant and puāwai – the rangatira (leaders) of today. They are then protected and supported by whakapapa (whenua/land)
and tikanga Māori (pakiaka/roots), as well as existing rights frameworks in the roles of whānau and tīpuna/tūpuna. Hauora (health and wellbeing) is represented by the kōrari (the stem of the harakeke).

Described as a decolonised rights model founded on tikanga Māori, Oranga Mokopuna connects the sovereign tangata whenua rights of mokopuna (recognised in He Whakaputanga and Te Tiriti o Waitangi) with international rights frameworks such as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (King et al., 2022).

— Click HERE to find out more about Oranga Mokopuna

Source: King et al., 2018

Evolutionary-Developmental Theory

Approaches such as Del Giudice’s Evolutionary-Developmental model build on Erik Erikson’s traditional theories. The theory is that middle childhood corresponds biologically with ‘juvenility’ – a stage of learning (often through play) where they practice at adulthood. Del Giudice suggests that adrenarche (see page 15) acts as a developmental switch from early childhood to the stage of juvenility, and initiates changes in behaviour that are influenced by sex, genetic variation and children’s interaction with their environment (Del Giudice, 2009), (Del Giudice, 2018).

Children learn from their experiences, through play and from interactions with other people in their lives. In middle childhood relationships with peers and adults beyond their parents/ caregivers become more important. They may be developed through school, activities such as sports and clubs, and spiritual or cultural activities. Their understanding of social and cultural norms develop in middle childhood, as does their understanding of themselves, and how they fit within their own social context.

The evolutionary-developmental model suggests that social competition is an important part of social integration, as children compete for attention, influence, status, and friendship. This approach views children’s “social position” during childhood as the “springboard” for later success in life. (Del Giudice, 2018, p.102)

Weisner’s Ecocultural Theory

This theory builds on ecological and cultural theories of development and explores how children’s participation in daily activities within their cultural settings contributes to their development. Weisner’s theory sets out “ecocultural niche settings” which impact on children’s development as they engage with activities within their cultural context. “Ecocultural niche settings” include things like gender roles, socioeconomic status, work expectations for children, community safety, and health status (Arnett et. al, 2020).

Cultural-Developmental Theory of Child Development

Cultural-developmental theory builds on the work of Erikson, Weisner, and Brofenbrenner, and suggests that as they develop, children both respond to and shape the future of their culture. This theory recognises the place of biological development but highlights the role of culture in determining what a child learns, their aspirations, and their perception of the world and their place in it (Arnett et. al, 2020).

These models that build on traditional models of child development, such as those developed by Erikson, Piaget, and Bowlby, are useful for those of us in Aotearoa to consider. They show a way of rethinking, but through our own lens, and are a potential way to weave in recently developed knowledge and evidence to ideas that may still be useful. It would be interesting, for example, to consider Bowlby’s attachment theory through a Pacific lens, or Bronfenbrenner through Hindi experiences.

Research/Knowledge Base

Growing Up in New Zealand

Growing Up in New Zealand is a longitudinal study focused on understanding what shapes development and wellbeing for children in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Beginning in 2009, the study is following the development of over 4,500 children from the antenatal period. Growing Up in New Zealand aims to build “a comprehensive picture of life for
children in New Zealand today so that we can learn what works to enable someone to have a happy, healthy, and fulfilling life” (Growing Up in New Zealand, 2023).

Led by the University of Auckland, Growing Up in New Zealand has published findings from engagement with participants at eight years and most recently 12 years of age.

Click the titles below to read the reports:

Transition to School (age 6) Report
Now We Are Eight: Life in Middle Childhood Report
Now We Are Twelve: Life in Early Adolescence Reports

— Click to find out more about Growing Up in New Zealand

New Zealand Child and Youth Epidemiology Service

The New Zealand Child and Youth Epidemiology Service (NZCYES) is hosted by the Otago University and provides up to date information regarding the health of children and young people in Aotearoa.

The service highlights disparities in health and inequities in service provision that impact on outcomes for children, providing valuable insights for policy development.

Specific NZCYES publications of note include:

• New Zealand Child and Youth Health Indicator Project: This is a framework for the NZCYES’ monitoring of child and youth health. Indicators cover a wide variety of topics, ranging from mental health to healthy housing to vaccination rates. You can look up and find reporting specific to each indicator here.
• Child and youth reports. The NZCYES publishes national and regional reports using the indicator framework mentioned above. Reports are available nationally or by District Health Board or region, or for Māori or Pacific people. A list of reports can be accessed here.
• Child Poverty Monitor Reports: Child Poverty Monitor Reports present child poverty statistics and commentary around meeting the Government’s child poverty targets. These reports can be viewed here.

What Makes A Good Life?

This report by Mana Mokopuna | The Office of the Children’s Commissioner shares findings from a survey of over 6,000 children and young people asking about their thoughts on what a good life is and what needs to be changed to make life in Aotearoa better for children and young people. 37% of the respondents to this survey were aged between 7-12 years.

Key findings include that:

• change is needed to improve life for children,
• family and whānau are crucial,
• providing the basics is important, but not enough on its own,
• children and young people have valuable insights.

Click below to view reports from this survey were also published specific to the views of

• children in care,
• disabled children and
• tamariki Māori.

— Click to find out more about What Makes a Good Life?

Child Wellbeing Research Institute, University of Canterbury

The Child Well-being Research Institute aims to advance high quality, multidisciplinary research to enhance the learning success and healthy wellbeing of children and young people.
The Institute aims to lead in developing a strengths-based discourse around child-development, health and well-being that speaks to the context of Aotearoa. Research focus areas include
learning success, nutrition and well-being, social and emotional well-being, child population health, autism and wellbeing and Māori learning and success.

— Find out more about the Child Well-being Research Institute

Child and Youth Health Research Centre, AUT

The AUT Child and Youth Health Research Centre investigates the impact of illness and disability, home and family, health services, nutrition, physical activity, and the wider environment on young people. The Centre is committed to providing a space for young people’s voices.

– Click to find out more about the AUT Child and Youth Health Research Centre

Children’s Issues Centre, University of Otago

The Children’s Issues Centre aims to make a difference in children’s lives by improving policy and practice. It undertakes high quality research, teaching and advocacy relating to children’s development, well-being and rights – underpinned by a commitment to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and using a Childhood Studies lens.

– Click to find out more about the Children’s Issues Centre

Children and Families Research Fund

The Children and Families Research Fund aims to improve the lives of children and families. It awards funding to enable further investigation of Growing Up in New Zealand findings to inform policy development. Research grants are government-funded totalling $750,000 per year.

A list of past and present research projects can be viewed here.

The Families Commission and Superu

A Families Commission, led by a Families Commissioner existed in New Zealand from 2004 until 2014, when the unit became the Social Policy Research and Evaluation Unit (Superu). Superu was disestablished in 2018. The Families Commission acted as an advocate for families generally and produced and promoted research relating to families.

Prior to its disestablishment, The Families and Whānau Wellbeing Research Programme within Superu produced a range of reporting, including an annual families and whānau status report, which measured and monitored the wellbeing of New Zealand families and whānau.

Read the last Families & Whānau Status Report (2018) by clicking HERE

Mana Reo | Communication

The value we place on middle childhood can perhaps be best understood by the extent to which we fail to talk about and understand this stage of development. The reality is that both early childhood and adolescence appear to attract far more attention and investment within political and academic worlds. Described as the “neglected” period or “the forgotten years”, middle childhood is in fact a fascinating developmental stage.
(Hutson et al., 2006; Mah & Ford-Jones, 2012)

This lack of discussion about middle childhood translates into little information gathering and sharing. We see this reflected in the choice of tools used to measure child wellbeing indicators and in the information that is shared with children, their families, and the children’s workforce about their development.

More worryingly – we don’t teach those who work alongside children about this age stage. And if we do, it tends to be the classic theorists being taught as if they are current thinking. It is hugely concerning that the vast majority of those working alongside our tamariki, have little to no current knowledge of their development. In addition, when a subject isn’t taught, it tends not be researched, as the main group of researchers in New Zealand are those who teach our degree and higher-level qualifications. This has created a chicken and egg situation where it’s hard to find experts to advocate for a qualification, and we have little research to show the value of expertise in this area.

Greater investment in tools focused on measuring wellbeing and development among this age group would provide a basis for better understanding middle childhood in a modern, Aotearoa context.

Measuring Child Development

Examples of how child development is measured and reported during middle childhood include:

• the Child & Youth Wellbeing Strategy
• Growing Up in New Zealand longitudinal study
• The Child Poverty Monitor
• the New Zealand Curriculum/ Te Marautanga o Aotearoa

Tamariki & COVID-19

The impact of the COVID-19 global pandemic on children’s lives has been an area of interest for researchers over the past few years. Several Aotearoa reports capture the experiences of children during periods of lockdowns, and the impact of other COVID-19 related restrictions on their day-to-day lives.

Growing Up in New Zealand Reporting

The Growing Up in New Zealand (GUINZ) study produced a range of reports on the impacts of the pandemic on this research cohort:

Now We Are Twelve: Experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic and young people’s wellbeing (2023)

This report focuses on concerns children held in relation to the impacts of COVID-19 on their education, family life and relationships.

A snapshot of Life in Lockdown: Children’s Health, Wellbeing and Education (2021)

This report shares findings of the COVID-19 Wellbeing Survey undertaken with the GUINZ cohort of children during the May 2020 lockdown period. Focus areas include: “bubble” life, school, physical health and mental wellbeing.

Life During Lockdown, Ministry of Social Development

This series of reports uses GUINZ data to provide in-depth insights about children’s experiences in relation to health and wellbeing and education:

• Life during lockdown, Ministry of Social Development: Part One. Health and Wellbeing. Click HERE to view
• Life during lockdown, Ministry of Social Development: Part Two. Education. Click HERE to view

Life in Lockdown, Mana Mokopuna, November 2020

This report shares children and young people’s views on the nationwide lockdown periods that occurred in 2020. Findings indicate that the experiences and impacts of the lockdowns, both positive and negative, were diverse. The report highlights the significance for children of the impact the lockdowns had on relationships.

Child & Youth Engagement Reports

This index comprises Aotearoa-based engagements with children and young people, undertaken by government agencies, NGOs, universities etc. While most relate to the youth age group, there are some engagements that involve children between five to 12-years.

Overseas Examples of Child Development Tools

The Middle Years Development Instrument

A great example from overseas of a tool focused on children’s development during middle childhood is the Middle Years Development Instrument (MDi).

This tool, developed by the University of British Columbia (Canada), uses information gathered from children in school years 4 to 8 to help shape and deliver policy, practice and programmes that support children’s emotional and social wellbeing.

The MDi focuses on five dimensions: Social and Emotional Development, Physical Health and Well-Being, Connectedness, Use of Out-of-School Time, and School Experiences, and provides a summary Wellbeing Index (covering social, emotional and physical health) and an Assets Index (which summarises things that are present in children’s lives and important to their wellbeing). The tool has been used by more than 75% of public-school districts in British Columbia. (Human Early Learning Partnership, University of British Columbia, 2024)

– Click HERE to find out more about the Middle Years Development Instrument

The Australian Child & Youth Wellbeing Atlas (ACYWA)

This tool is a nationwide platform provides spatial data focused on child health and wellbeing indicators which can be filtered and drilled down at local and national levels. Indicators are based
on six wellbeing themes: valued, loved, and safe, material basics, healthy, learning, participation, positive sense of identity and culture.

— Click to find out more about the ACYWA

What might it look like to strengthen Kotahitanga for children….

• within your mahi?
• within your home or community?

Within the landscape of knowledge and research centred on the holistic development of five- to 12-year-olds we have identified some key recommendations to better recognise and strengthen the Te Whāriki principles and improve outcomes for children: